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20нче гасыр соңында башланган [[Мәгълүмат чоры]] сәбәпле, хәзерге кешеләр зур [[тизлек]] белән глобалләшә һәм [[бәйләнеш]]ә барган дөньяда яши. 2010 елда, якынча 2 миллиард кеше [[Интернет]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm |title=Internet Usage Statistics - The Internet Big Picture |publisher=internetworldstats.com/ |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> һәм 3,3 миллиарды [[кәрәзле телефон]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://investing.reuters.co.uk/news/articleinvesting.aspx?type=media&storyID=nL29172095 |title=Reuters homepage |publisher=Reuters |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> аркылы бер-берсе белән [[элемтә]]гә керә алуы билгеле.
<!--Although interconnection between humans has encouraged the growth of [[science]], [[art]], [[discussion]], and [[technology]], it has also led to culture clashes and the development and use of [[weapons of mass destruction]]. Human civilization has led to [[Environmental degradation|environmental destruction]] and [[pollution]] significantly contributing to the ongoing [[mass extinction]] of other forms of life called the [[holocene extinction event]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pimm S, Raven P, Peterson A, Sekercioglu CH, Ehrlich PR |title=Human impacts on the rates of recent, present, and future bird extinctions |doi= 10.1073/pnas.0604181103 |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=103 |issue=29 |pages=10941–6 |year=2006 |pmid=16829570 |pmc=1544153}}<br />*{{cite journal |author=Barnosky AD, Koch PL, Feranec RS, Wing SL, Shabel AB |title=Assessing the causes of late Pleistocene extinctions on the continents |journal=Science |volume=306 |issue=5693 |pages=70–5 |year=2004 |pmid=15459379 |doi=10.1126/science.1101476 }}</ref> that may be further accelerated by [[global warming]] in the future.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lewis OT |title=Climate change, species-area curves and the extinction crisis |url=http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/content/711761513317h856/fulltext.pdf |format=PDF|journal=Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. |volume=361 |issue=1465 |pages=163–71 |year=2006 |pmid=16553315 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2005.1712 |pmc=1831839}}</ref>
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== Яшәү мохиты һәм популяция ==
{{Seealso|Кешеләр миграциясе|Демография|Дөнья халкы}}
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[[File:Indian family in Brazil posed in front of hut.jpg|thumb|right|Humans often live in family-based social structures and create artificial shelter.]]
Early human settlements were dependent on proximity to [[water resources|water]] and, depending on the [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]], other [[natural resources]] used for [[subsistence]], such as populations of animal prey for [[hunting]] and [[arable land]] for growing crops and grazing [[livestock]]. But humans have a great capacity for altering their [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]] by means of technology, through [[irrigation]], [[urban planning]], [[construction]], [[transport]], [[manufacturing]] goods, [[deforestation]] and [[desertification]]. Deliberate habitat alteration is often done with the goals of increasing material [[wealth]], increasing [[thermal comfort]], improving the amount of food available, improving [[aesthetics]], or improving ease of access to resources or other human settlements. With the advent of large-scale trade and [[transport infrastructure]], proximity to these resources has become unnecessary, and in many places, these factors are no longer a driving force behind the growth and decline of a population. Nonetheless, the manner in which a habitat is altered is often a major determinant in population change.
Technology has allowed humans to colonize all of the continents and adapt to virtually all climates. Within the last century, humans have explored [[Antarctica]], the ocean depths, and [[outer space]], although large-scale colonization of these environments is not yet feasible. With a population of over six billion, humans are among the most numerous of the large mammals. Most humans (61%) live in Asia. The remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (14%), Europe (11%), and Oceania (0.5%).{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}}
Human habitation within [[closed ecological system]]s in hostile environments, such as Antarctica and outer space, is expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions. Life in space has been very sporadic, with no more than thirteen humans in space at any given time.<ref>{{cite web|author=Nancy Atkinson |url=http://www.universetoday.com/27924/soyuz-rockets-to-space-13-humans-now-in-orbit/ |title=Soyuz Rockets to Space; 13 Humans Now in Orbit |publisher=Universetoday.com |date=2009-03-26 |accessdate=2011-12-10}}</ref> Between 1969 and 1972, two humans at a time spent brief intervals on the [[exploration of the Moon|Moon]]. As of {{Monthyear}}, no other celestial body has been visited by humans, although there has been a continuous human presence in space since the launch of the initial crew to inhabit the [[International Space Station]] on October 31, 2000.<ref name="urlNASA">{{cite web |author=Kraft, Rachel |title=JSC celebrates ten years of continuous human presence aboard the International Space Station |url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/jscfeatures/articles/000000945.html |publisher=[[Johnson Space Center]] |work=JSC Features |date=December 11, 2010}}</ref> However, other celestial bodies have been visited by human-made objects.
Since 1800, the [[human population]] has increased from one billion to over six billion.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/411162.stm | accessdate = February 5, 2008 | work=BBC News | title=World's population reaches six billion | date=August 5, 1999}}</ref> In 2004, some 2.5 billion out of 6.3 billion people (39.7%) lived in [[urban area]]s, and this percentage is expected to continue to rise throughout the 21st century. In February 2008, the U.N. estimated that half the world's population will live in [[urban area]]s by the end of the year.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4561183.stm | work=BBC News | first=David | last=Whitehouse | title=Half of humanity set to go urban | date=May 19, 2005}}</ref> Problems for humans living in [[city|cities]] include various forms of pollution and [[crime]],<ref>[http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/usrv98.htm Urban, Suburban, and Rural Victimization, 1993–98] U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics,. Accessed 29 Oct 2006</ref> especially in inner city and suburban [[slum]]s.
Humans have had a dramatic effect on the [[natural environment|environment]]. As humans are rarely preyed upon, they have been described as [[apex predator|superpredators]].<ref>''[[Scientific American]]'' (1998). [http://www.csulb.edu/~kmacd/346IQ.html Evolution and General Intelligence: Three hypotheses on the evolution of general intelligence].</ref> Currently, through land development, combustion of [[fossil fuels]], and pollution, humans are thought to be the main contributor to global [[climate change]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/007.htm |title=Climate Change 2001: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis |publisher=grida.no/ |accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref> If this continues at its current rate it is predicted that it will wipe out half of all species over the next century.<ref>[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]. [http://atlas.aaas.org/index.php?sub=foreword Foreword]. ''AAAS Atlas of Population & Environment''.</ref><ref>[[E. O. Wilson|Wilson, E.O.]] (2002). ''in The Future of Life''.</ref>
{{See also|City|Town|Nomad|Camping|Farm|House|Watercraft|Infrastructure|Architecture|Building|Engineering}}
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== Биология ==
{{Main|Кеше биологиясе}}
=== Анатомия ===
{{Main|Кеше анатомиясе}}
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{{Further|Кешенең тышкы кыяфәте|Anatomically modern humans}}
[[File:Anterior view of human female and male, with labels 2.png|250px|thumb|right|Basic anatomical features of female and male humans. These models have had [[body hair]] and male [[facial hair]] removed and head hair trimmed.]]
Human body types vary substantially. Although body size is largely determined by [[gene]]s, it is also significantly influenced by environmental factors such as [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] and [[exercise]]. The average [[human height|height]] of an adult human is about 1.5 to 1.8 m (5 to 6 feet) tall, although this varies significantly from place to place and depending on ethnic origin.<ref>{{cite journal | author = de Beer H | title = Observations on the history of Dutch physical stature from the late-Middle Ages to the present | journal = Econ Hum Biol | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 45–55 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15463992 | doi = 10.1016/j.ehb.2003.11.001}}</ref> The average [[human weight|mass]] of an adult human is 54–64 kg (120–140 lbs) for females and 76–83 kg (168–183 lbs) for males.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.articleworld.org/index.php/Human_weight |title=Human weight|publisher=Articleworld.org |date= |accessdate=2011-12-10}}</ref> Weight can also vary greatly (e.g. [[obesity]]). Unlike most other primates, humans are capable of fully bipedal [[terrestrial locomotion in animals|locomotion]], thus leaving their arms available for manipulating objects using their [[hand]]s, aided especially by opposable thumbs.
[[File:Uomo Vitruviano.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Vitruvian Man]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s image is often used as an implied symbol of the essential symmetry of the human body, and by extension, of the universe as a whole.]]
Although humans appear hairless compared to other primates, with notable [[hair]] growth occurring chiefly on the top of the head, underarms and pubic area, the average human has more [[hair follicles]] on his or her body than the average chimpanzee. The main distinction is that human hairs are shorter, finer, and less heavily pigmented than the average chimpanzee's, thus making them harder to see.<ref>''Why Humans and Their Fur Parted Way'' by Nicholas Wade, ''New York Times'', August 19, 2003.</ref>
The hue of human skin and hair is determined by the presence of [[pigment]]s called [[melanin]]s. Human skin hues can range from dark brown to pale pink. Human hair ranges from white to [[brown hair|brown]] to [[red hair|red]] to most commonly [[black hair|black]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=Rogers, Alan R., Iltis, David & Wooding, Stephen | year=2004 | title=Genetic variation at the MC1R locus and the time since loss of human body hair | journal=Current Anthropology | volume=45 | issue=1 | pages=105–108 | doi=10.1086/381006}}</ref> This depends on the amount of melanin (an effective sun blocking pigment) in the skin and hair, with hair melanin concentrations in hair fading with increased age, leading to [[grey hair|grey]] or even white hair. Most researchers believe that skin darkening was an adaptation that evolved as a protection against [[ultraviolet]] [[solar radiation]]. However, more recently it has been argued that particular skin colors are an adaptation to balance [[folate]], which is destroyed by ultraviolet radiation, and [[vitamin D]], which requires sunlight to form.<ref>Jablonski, N.G. & Chaplin, G. (2000). ''[http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/chem/faculty/leontis/chem447/PDF_files/Jablonski_skin_color_2000.pdf The evolution of human skin coloration]'' (pdf), 'Journal of Human Evolution 39: 57–106.</ref> The skin pigmentation of contemporary humans is geographically stratified, and in general correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation. Human skin also has a capacity to darken ([[sun tanning]]) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Harding RM |title=Evidence for variable selective pressures at MC1R |journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=1351–61 |year=2000 |month=April |pmid=10733465 |pmc=1288200 |doi=10.1086/302863 |url= |author-separator=, |author2=Healy E |author3=Ray AJ |display-authors=3 |last4=Ellis |first4=Nichola S. |last5=Flanagan |first5=Niamh |last6=Todd |first6=Carol |last7=Dixon |first7=Craig |last8=Sajantila |first8=Antti |last9=Jackson |first9=Ian J.}}</ref><ref>Robin, Ashley (1991). ''Biological Perspectives on Human Pigmentation''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> Humans tend to be physically weaker than other similarly sized primates, with young, conditioned male humans having been shown to be unable to match the strength of female [[orangutan]]s, which are at least three times stronger.<ref name="Schwartz">{{cite book | author = Schwartz, Jeffrey |url = | title = The Red Ape: Orangutans and Human Origins | year = 1987 | page = 286 | isbn = 0-8133-4064-0 | publisher = Westview Press | location = Cambridge, MA}}</ref>
The construction of the [[human pelvis]] differs from other primates, as do the toes. As a result, humans are slower for short distances than most other animals, but are among the best long-distance runners in the animal kingdom.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/27/health/27well.html | work=The New York Times | title=The Human Body Is Built for Distance | first=Tara | last=Parker-Pope | date=October 27, 2009}}</ref> Humans' thinner body hair and more productive [[sweat gland]]s also help avoid [[heat exhaustion]] while running for long distances. For this reason [[persistence hunting]] was most likely a very successful strategy for early humans – in this method, prey is chased until it is literally exhausted. This may have also helped the early human [[Cro-Magnon]] population out-compete the [[Neanderthal]] population for food. The otherwise physically stronger Neanderthal would have much greater difficulty hunting in this way, and much more likely hunted larger game in close quarters. A trade-off for these advantages of the modern human pelvis is that childbirth is more difficult and dangerous.
The construction of modern human shoulders enabled throwing weapons, which also were much more difficult or even impossible for Neanderthal competitors to use effectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16091-were-neanderthals-stoned-to-death-by-modern-humans.html |title=Were Neanderthals stoned to death by modern humans? |publisher=New Scientist |date=20 November 2008 |accessdate=2011-12-10}}</ref>
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{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+ Constituents of the human body in a person weighing 60 kg<ref name=Burton>{{cite book |author=Burton, George |title=Chemical Storylines |edition=2 |year=2000 |publisher=Heinemann |location=Oxford, UK |page=3 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zvbV4M0-YdEC&pg=PA3 |isbn=978-0-435-63119-2}}</ref>
|-
! Constituent !! Weight !! Weight<br> percentage || Percentage <br> of atoms
|- style="text-align:right"
| style="text-align:left" | [[Oxygen]] || 38.8 kg || 65 % || 25.5 %
|- style="text-align:right"
| style="text-align:left" | [[Carbon]] || 10.9 kg || 18 % || 9.5 %
|- style="text-align:right"
| style="text-align:left" | [[Hydrogen]]|| 6.0 kg || 10 % || 63.0 %
|- style="text-align:right"
| style="text-align:left" | [[Nitrogen]] || 1.9 kg || 3 % || 1.4 %
|- style="text-align:right"
| style="text-align:left" | Other || 2.4 kg || 4 % || 0.6 %
|}
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The [[dentition|dental formula]] of Humans is the following: {{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.2.3|lower=2.1.2.3}}. Humans have proportionately shorter [[palate]]s and much smaller teeth than other primates. They are the only primates to have short, relatively flush [[canine teeth]]. Humans have characteristically crowded teeth, with gaps from lost teeth usually closing up quickly in young individuals. Humans are gradually losing their [[wisdom teeth]], with some individuals having them congenitally absent.<ref name="Revolution">{{cite book | author = Collins, Desmond |url = | title = The Human Revolution: From Ape to Artist | year = 1976 | page = 208 }}</ref>
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=== Физиология ===
{{Main|Кеше физиологиясе}}
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Human physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical, and [[biochemistry|biochemical]] functions of humans in good health, their [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], and the [[cell (biology)|cells]] of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of physiology is at the level of organs and [[biological system|systems]]. Most aspects of human physiology are closely homologous to corresponding aspects of [[animal physiology]], and [[animal experimentation]] has provided much of the foundation of physiological knowledge. Anatomy and physiology are closely related fields of study: anatomy, the study of form, and physiology, the study of function, are intrinsically tied and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.
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=== Генетика ===
{{Main|Кеше генетикасы}}
Кешеләр - [[эукариотлар]] [[домен (биология|домен]]ына кергән [[җәнлек]] төре. <!--Each [[ploidy|diploid]] [[cell (biology)|cell]] has two sets of 23 [[chromosome]]s, each set received from one parent. There are 22 pairs of [[autosome]]s and one pair of [[sex-determination system|sex chromosomes]]. By present estimates, humans have approximately 22,000 genes.<ref name=Pertea2010>{{cite journal |author=Pertea, Mihaela; Salzberg, Steven L. |title=Between a chicken and a grape: estimating the number of human genes |journal=Genome Biology |year=2010 |volume=11 |issue=5 |page=206 |doi=10.1186/gb-2010-11-5-206 |pmc=2898077 |pmid=20441615}}</ref> Like other mammals, humans have an [[XY sex-determination system]], so that [[female]]s have the sex chromosomes XX and [[male]]s have XY. The X chromosome carries many genes not on the Y chromosome, which means that [[recessive gene|recessive]] diseases associated with [[sex linkage|X-linked]] genes, such as [[haemophilia|hemophilia]], affect men more often than women.
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=== Тормыш циклы ===
[[Файл:Tubal Pregnancy with embryo.jpg|thumb|upright|5 атналык 10 мм зурлыгындагы [[кеше эмбрионы]]]]
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As with other mammals, human reproduction takes place as [[internal fertilization]] by [[human sexual intercourse|sexual intercourse]]. During this process, the [[erection|erect]] penis of the male is inserted into the female's vagina until the male [[ejaculate]]s semen, which contains sperm. The sperm travels through the vagina and cervix into the uterus or Fallopian tubes for fertilization of the ovum. Upon [[human fertilization|fertilization]] and [[Implantation (human embryo)|implantation]], gestation then occurs within the female's uterus.
The [[zygote]] divides inside the female's [[uterus]] to become an [[embryo]], which over a period of thirty-eight weeks (9 months) of [[gestation]] becomes a [[fetus]]. After this span of time, the fully grown fetus is [[childbirth|birthed]] from the woman's body and breathes independently as an infant for the first time. At this point, most modern cultures recognize the baby as a person entitled to the full protection of the law, though some jurisdictions extend various levels of personhood earlier to human fetuses while they remain in the uterus.
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Compared with other species, human childbirth is dangerous. Painful labors lasting twenty-four hours or more are not uncommon and sometimes lead to the death of the mother, or the child.<ref>According to the July 2, 2007 ''[[Newsweek]]'' magazine, a woman dies in childbirth every minute, most often due to uncontrolled bleeding and infection, with the world's poorest women most vulnerable. The lifetime risk is 1 in 16 in [[sub-Saharan Africa]], compared to 1 in 2,800 in developed countries.</ref> This is because of both the relatively large fetal head circumference (for housing the brain) and the mother's relatively narrow [[human pelvis|pelvis]] (a trait required for successful bipedalism, by way of natural selection).<ref name=LaVelle1995>{{cite journal |author=LaVelle, M. |title=Natural selection and developmental sexual variation in the human pelvis |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=98 |issue=1 |pages=59–72 |year=1995 |pmid=8579191 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330980106}}</ref><ref name=Correia2005>{{cite journal |author=Correia, H.; Balseiro, S.; De Areia, M. |title=Sexual dimorphism in the human pelvis: testing a new hypothesis |journal=Homo |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=153–160 |year=2005 |pmid=16130838 |doi=10.1016/j.jchb.2005.05.003}}</ref> The chances of a successful labor increased significantly during the 20th century in wealthier countries with the advent of new medical technologies. In contrast, pregnancy and [[natural childbirth]] remain hazardous ordeals in developing regions of the world, with [[maternal death rates]] approximately 100 times greater than in developed countries.<ref name=Rush2000>{{cite journal |author=Rush, David |title=Nutrition and maternal mortality in the developing world |journal=American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=72 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=212S–240S |year=2000 |pmid=10871588 |url=http://www.ajcn.org/content/72/1/212S.full}}</ref>
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In developed countries, infants are typically 3–4 kg (6–9 pounds) in weight and 50–60 cm (20–24 inches) in height at birth.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://childinfo.org/areas/birthweight/ |title=Low Birthweight |accessdate=2007-05-30 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070513150431/http://www.childinfo.org/areas/birthweight/ |archivedate=May 13, 2007}}</ref> However, low [[birth weight]] is common in developing countries, and contributes to the high levels of [[infant mortality]] in these regions.<ref name=Khor2003>{{cite journal |author=Khor, G. |title=Update on the prevalence of malnutrition among children in Asia |journal=Nepal Medical College Journal |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=113–122 |year=2003 |pmid=15024783}}</ref> Helpless at birth, humans continue to grow for some years, typically reaching [[sexual maturity]] at 12 to 15 years of age. Females continue to develop physically until around the age of 18, whereas male development continues until around age 21. The [[life expectancy|human life span]] can be split into a number of stages: infancy, [[childhood]], [[adolescence]], [[young adulthood]], [[adult]]hood and [[old age]]. The lengths of these stages, however, have varied across cultures and time periods. Compared to other primates, humans experience an unusually rapid growth spurt during adolescence, where the body grows 25% in size. Chimpanzees, for example, grow only 14%, with no pronounced spurt.<ref name=Leakey1993>{{cite book |author=Leakey, Richard; Lewin, Roger |title=Origins Reconsidered: In Search of What Makes Us Human |year=1993 |publisher=Anchor Books |location=New York, New York |isbn=978-0-385-46792-6}}</ref>The presence of the growth spurt is probably necessary to keep children physically small until they are psychologically mature. Humans are one of the few species in which females undergo [[menopause]]. It has been proposed that menopause increases a woman's overall reproductive success by allowing her to invest more time and resources in her existing offspring and/or their children (the [[grandmother hypothesis]]), rather than by continuing to bear children into old age.<ref name=Diamond1997>{{cite book |author=Diamond, Jared |authorlink=Jared Diamond |title=Why is Sex Fun? The Evolution of Human Sexuality |publisher =Basic Books |location=New York, New York |year=1997 |pages=167–170 |isbn=0-465-03127-7}}</ref><ref name=Peccei2001>{{cite journal |author=Peccei, Jocelyn Scott |title=Menopause: adaptation or epiphenomenon? |journal=Evolutionary Anthropology |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=47–57 |year=2001 |doi=10.1002/evan.1013 |url=http://www.biology.ed.ac.uk/public/conferences/evolbiol2006/papers/Peccei.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref>-->
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There are significant differences in life expectancy around the world. The developed world is generally aging, with the median age around 40 years. In the [[third world|developing world]] the median age is between 15 and 20 years. Life expectancy at birth in [[Hong Kong]] is 84.8 years for a female and 78.9 for a male, while in [[Swaziland]], primarily because of [[AIDS]], it is 31.3 years for both sexes.<ref>[http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/ "Human Development Report 2006,"] [[United Nations Development Programme]], pp. 363–366, November 9, 2006</ref> While one in five Europeans is 60 years of age or older, only one in twenty Africans is 60 years of age or older.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ ''The World Factbook''], U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved April 2, 2005.</ref> The number of [[centenarian]]s (humans of age 100 years or older) in the world was estimated by the [[United Nations]] at 210,000 in 2002.<ref>[http://www.un.org/ageing/note5713.doc.htm U.N. Statistics on Population Ageing], United Nations press release, February 28, 2002. Retrieved April 2, 2005.</ref> At least one person, [[Jeanne Calment]], is known to have reached the age of 122 years;<ref name=Maier2010>{{cite book |author=Maier, Heiner |title=Supercentenarians |year=2010 |publisher=Springer |location=Heidelberg, Germany |isbn=978-3-642-11519-6 |page=288 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=0Fjkhcn3oeIC&pg=PA288}}</ref> higher ages have been claimed but they are not well substantiated. Worldwide, there are 81 men aged 60 or older for every 100 women of that age group, and among the oldest, there are 53 men for every 100 women.
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<!--
<gallery caption="A selection of different humans at various stages of the human life cycle" perrow="3">
File:Burkina Faso girl.jpg|Girl (before [[puberty]])
File:Punjabi woman smile.jpg|Woman of [[Reproduction|reproductive]] age
Image:HappyPensioneer.jpg|Older woman (after [[menopause]])
File:Kirgisischer Junge.JPG|Boy (before puberty)
File:Pataxo001.jpg|[[Adult]] man
File:Old man from Tajikistan.jpg|[[Elderly]] man
</gallery>
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=== Диета ===
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{{Main|Human nutrition}}
Humans are [[omnivorous]], capable of consuming a wide variety of plant and animal material.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Haenel H |title=Phylogenesis and nutrition |journal=Nahrung |volume=33 |issue=9 |pages=867–87 |year=1989 |pmid=2697806}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor=Peter S. Ungar|year=2007|author=Cordain, Loren|title=Evolution of the human diet: the known, the unknown and the unknowable|chapter=Implications of Plio-pleistocene diets for modern humans|quote="Since the evolutionary split between hominins and pongids approximately 7 million years ago, the available evidence shows that all species of hominins ate an omnivorous diet composed of minimally processed, wild-plant, and animal foods.|pages=264–5}}</ref> Varying with available food sources in regions of habitation, and also varying with cultural and religious norms, human groups have adopted a range of diets, from purely [[vegetarian]] to primarily [[carnivorous]]. In some cases, dietary restrictions in humans can lead to [[deficiency diseases]]; however, stable human groups have adapted to many dietary patterns through both genetic specialization and cultural conventions to use nutritionally balanced food sources.<ref>{{cite journal| journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association| year=2003| volume=103| issue=6| pages=748–765| title=Vegetarian Diets| doi=10.1053/jada.2003.50142| pmid=12778049| last1=American Dietetic| first1=Association| last2=Dietitians Of| first2=Canada}}[http://www.eatright.org/cps/rde/xchg/ada/hs.xsl/advocacy_933_ENU_HTML.htm online copy available]</ref> The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the development of [[food science]].
Until the development of agriculture approximately 10,000 years ago, ''Homo sapiens'' employed a hunter-gatherer method as their sole means of food collection. This involved combining stationary food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms, insect larvae and aquatic mollusks) with [[Game (food)|wild game]], which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cordain L |title=Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=341–54 |year=2005 |month=February |pmid=15699220 |author-separator=, |author2=Eaton SB |author3=Sebastian A |display-authors=3 |last4=Mann |first4=N |last5=Lindeberg |first5=S |last6=Watkins |first6=BA |last7=O'Keefe |first7=JH |last8=Brand-Miller |first8=J}}</ref> It has been proposed that members of ''H. sapiens'' have used fire to prepare and [[cooking|cook]] food since the time of their divergence from ''[[Homo rhodesiensis]]'' (which itself had previously speciated from ''[[Homo erectus]]'').<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ulijaszek SJ |title=Human eating behaviour in an evolutionary ecological context |journal=Proc Nutr Soc |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=517–26 |year=2002 |month=November |pmid=12691181 |doi=10.1079/PNS2002180}}</ref> Around ten thousand years ago, [[History of agriculture|humans developed agriculture]],<ref>[http://www.archaeology.org/9707/newsbriefs/squash.html Earliest agriculture in the Americas]
[http://sciencenow.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2007/213/2 Earliest cultivation of barley]
[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5038116.stm Earliest cultivation of figs] – URLs retrieved February 19, 2007</ref> which substantially altered their diet. This change in diet may also have altered human biology; with the spread of [[dairy farming]] providing a new and rich source of food, leading to the evolution of the ability to digest [[lactose]] in some adults.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Krebs JR |title=The gourmet ape: evolution and human food preferences |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=90 |issue=3 |pages=707S–711S |year=2009 |month=September |pmid=19656837 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.2009.27462B}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Holden C, Mace R |title=Phylogenetic analysis of the evolution of lactose digestion in adults |journal=Hum. Biol. |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=605–28 |year=1997 |month=October |pmid=9299882 }}</ref> Agriculture led to increased populations, the development of cities, and because of increased population density, the wider spread of [[infectious disease]]s. The types of food consumed, and the way in which they are prepared, has varied widely by time, location, and culture.
In general, humans can survive for two to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days. About 36 million humans die every year from causes directly or indirectly related to hunger.<ref>[[United Nations]] Information Service. [http://www.fao.org/righttofood/kc/downloads/vl/docs/Rtf%20hearing%2031%2003%202004.doc “Independent Expert On Effects Of Structural Adjustment, Special Rapporteur On Right To Food Present Reports: Commission Continues General Debate On Economic, Social And Cultural Rights”]. [[United Nations]], March 29, 2004, p. 6. “Around 36 million people died from hunger directly or indirectly every year.”.</ref> Childhood malnutrition is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Murray C, Lopez A | title = Global mortality, disability, and the contribution of risk factors: Global Burden of Disease Study | journal = Lancet | volume = 349 | issue = 9063 | pages = 1436–42 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9164317 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)07495-8}}</ref> However global food distribution is not even, and [[obesity]] among some human populations has increased rapidly, leading to health complications and increased mortality in some [[developed country|developed]], and a few [[developing countries]]. Worldwide over one billion people are obese,<ref name=Haslam>{{cite journal |author=Haslam DW, James WP |title=Obesity |journal=Lancet |volume=366 |issue=9492 |pages=1197–209 |year=2005 |month=October |pmid=16198769 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67483-1 }}</ref> while in the United States 35% of people are obese, leading to this being described as an "[[Epidemiology of obesity|obesity epidemic]]".<ref name=Catenacci>{{cite journal |author=Catenacci VA, Hill JO, Wyatt HR |title=The obesity epidemic |journal=Clin. Chest Med. |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=415–44, vii |year=2009 |month=September |pmid=19700042 |doi=10.1016/j.ccm.2009.05.001 }}</ref> Obesity is caused by consuming more [[calorie]]s than are expended, so excessive weight gain is usually caused by a combination of an energy-dense high fat diet and insufficient [[exercise]].<ref name=Haslam/>
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=== Йокы ===
{{Main|Йокы}}
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Humans are generally [[Diurnality|diurnal]]. The average [[sleep]] requirement is between seven and nine hours per day for an adult and nine to ten hours per day for a child; elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours. Experiencing less sleep than this is common in modern societies; this [[sleep deprivation]] can have negative effects. A sustained restriction of adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in physiology and mental state, including fatigue, aggression, and bodily discomfort.<ref name=Grandner2010>{{cite journal |author=Grandner, Michael A.; Patel, Nirav P.; Gehrman, Philip R.; Perlis, Michael L.; Pack, Allan I. |title=Problems associated with short sleep: bridging the gap between laboratory and epidemiological studies |journal=Sleep Medicine Reviews |year=2010 |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=239–47 |pmid=19896872 |pmc=2888649 |doi=10.1016/j.smrv.2009.08.001}}</ref><!--cites previous two sentences-->
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=== Биологик төрлелеге ===
{{Main|Кешенең генетик төрлелеге}}
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Most current [[Genetic anthropology|genetic]] and archaeological evidence supports a [[recent single origin hypothesis|recent single origin]] of modern humans in [[East Africa]]<ref name=Liu>{{cite journal |author=Liu, Hua; Prugnolle, Franck; Manina, Andrea; Balloux, François |title=A geographically explicit genetic model of worldwide human-settlement history |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=230–237 |year=2006 |pmid=16826514 |pmc=1559480 |doi=10.1086/505436}}</ref> with first migrations placed at 60,000 years ago. Current genetic studies have demonstrated that humans on the African continent are the most genetically diverse.<ref name=Jorde2000>{{cite journal |author=Jorde, L.; Watkins, W; Bamshad, M; Dixon, M; Ricker, C.; Seielstad, M.; Batzer, M. |title=The distribution of human genetic diversity: a comparison of mitochondrial, autosomal, and Y-chromosome data |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=979–988 |year=2000 |pmc=1288178 |pmid=10712212 |doi=10.1086/302825}}</ref> However, compared to the other [[great ape]]s, [[Population bottleneck#Humans|human gene sequences]] are [[Human genetic variation#History and geographic distribution|remarkably homogeneous]].<ref name=REGWG2005>{{cite journal |author=Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group |title=The use of racial, ethnic, and ancestral categories in human genetics research |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=519–532 |year=2005 |pmid=16175499 |pmc=1275602 |doi=10.1086/491747}}</ref>
Nonetheless, there is important biological variation in the human species - with traits such as skin color, eye color, hair color and texture, height and built, and cranial features varying clinally across the globe. Those aspects of genetic variation that gives clue to human evolutionary history, or which are relevant for medical research have received particular attention. For example the genes that cause adult humans to be able to [[lactase|digest lactose]] are present in high frequencies in population that have long histories of cattle domestication, suggesting natural selection having favored that gene in populations that depend on cow milk. Some hereditary diseases such as [[Sickle cell anemia]] are frequent in populations from areas in which [[Malaria]] has been endemic throughout history - it is believed that the same gene that causes increased resistance to Malaria among those who are unaffected [[heterozygous|carriers]] of the gene. Similarly populations that have inhabited specific climates such as arctic or tropical regions or high altitudes, tend to have developed specific phenotypes that are beneficial for conserving energy in those environments - [[Allen's rule|short stature and stocky built in cold regions]], tall and lanky in hot regions and with high lung capacities in high altitudes. Similarly variation in skincolor varies clinally with darker colors around the equator where the added protection from the sun is thought to gives an evolutionary advantage, and lighter skin tones closer to the poles where there is less sunlight and the lighter colored skin improves [[Vitamin D]] synthesis.
Today it is possible to determine, by [[Human genetic variation|genetic analysis]], the geographic ancestry of a person and the degree of ancestry from each region. Such analyses can pinpoint the [[Early human migrations|migrational history]] of a persons ancestors with a high degree of accuracy. Often, due to practices of group [[endogamy]], [[allele]] frequencies cluster locally around [[kinship|kin groups]] and lineages, or by [[nation]]al, [[culture|cultural]] or [[language|linguistic]] boundaries, giving a detailed degree of correlation between genetic clusters and population groups when considering many alleles simultaneously.
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==== Раса ====
{{main|Раса (кешеләр классификациясе)}}
{{Шулай ук карагыз|Раса һәм генетика|Расаның тарихи билгеләмәләре}}
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There is no scientific consensus on the biological relevance of race. Few anthropologists endorse the notion of human "race" as a basically biological concept. Most anthropologists also maintain that the term "race" tacitly assumes that races are clearly bounded groups with essential characteristics, often ordered hierarchically and used to justify social inequality. For these reasons Anthropologists tend to reject using the word race to describe biological variation. They tend to see race as a social construct superimposed on, but partly obscuring, underlying biological variation.<ref>{{cite book | last1= Marks |first1=J |year=1995 |title= Human biodiversity: genes, race, and history |publisher= Aldine de Gruyter | location= New York | isbn = 0-585-39559-4 |ref=harv }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=AAA| url=http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm |title=American Anthropological Association Statement on "Race" |publisher=Aaanet.org |date=1998-05-17 |accessdate=2009-04-18|ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Smedley |first=Audrey |title=The History of the Idea of Race... and Why It Matters |publisher=presented at the conference “Race, Human Variation and Disease: Consensus and Frontiers” sponsored by the American Anthropological Association (AAA) |date=2007-March-14-17 |url=http://www.understandingrace.org/resources/pdf/disease/smedley.pdf |ref=harv}}</ref> An opposing view has it that it is possible to talk about "races" without making essentialist or hierarchical assumptions, and some biologists and many forensic scientists use the word race to describe biological variation associated with continental ancestry. It is generally agreed upon that certain genetic traits, including some common illnesses, correlate with genetic ancestry from specific regions, and genetic ancestry as determined by racial identification is becoming an increasingly common tool for risk assessment in [[Race and health|medicine]].<ref name=Bamshad2004>{{cite journal |author=Bamshad, Michael; Wooding, Stephen; Salisbury, Benjamin A.; Stephens, J. Clairborne |title=Deconstructing the relationship between genetics and race |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=5 |issue=8 |pages=598–609 |year=2004 |pmid=15266342 |doi=10.1038/nrg1401}}</ref><ref name=Tischkoff2004>{{cite journal |author=Tishkoff, Sarah A.; Kidd, Kenneth K. |title=Implications of biogeography of human populations for 'race' and medicine |journal=Nature Genetics |volume=36 |issue=11 Suppl |pages=S21–27 |year=2004 |pmid=15507999 |doi=10.1038/ng1438}}</ref><ref name=Jorde2004>{{cite journal |author=Jorde, Lynn B.; Wooding, Stephen P. |title=Genetic variation, classification and 'race' |journal=Nature Genetics |volume=36 |issue=11 Suppl |pages=S28–33 |year=2004 |pmid=15508000 |doi=10.1038/ng1435}}</ref><ref>Ian Whitmarsh and David S. Jones, 2010, ''What's the Use of Race? Modern Governance and the Biology of Difference'', MIT press. Page 188. "Far from waning in the age of molecular genetics, race has been resurgent in biomedical discourse, especially in relation to a torrent of new interest in human biological variation and its quantification."</ref><ref name=Templeton1998>{{cite journal |author=Templeton, Alan R. |title=Human races: a genetic and evolutionary perspective |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=100 |issue=3 |year=1998 |pages=632–650 |url=http://www.realfuture.org/GIST/Readings/Templeton(1998).pdf |format=PDF}}</ref><ref name=Collins-2004>{{Cite journal|author=Collins FS |title=What we do and don't know about 'race', 'ethnicity', genetics and health at the dawn of the genome era |journal=Nature Genetics |volume=36 |issue=11 Suppl |pages=S13–5 |year=2004 |month=November |pmid=15507997 |doi=10.1038/ng1436}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first=Robert |last=Wallace |year=2003 |title=A Racialized Medical Genomics: Shiny, Bright and Wrong |url=http://www.pbs.org/race/000_About/002_04-background-01-13.htm |work=[[Race: The Power of an Illusion]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first=Richard |last=Garcia |year=2003 |title=The misuse of race in medical diagnosis |url=http://www.pbs.org/race/000_About/002_04-background-01-y.htm |work=[[Race: The Power of an Illusion]]}} Reprinted from: {{Cite journal|author=Garcia RS |title=The misuse of race in medical diagnosis |journal=The Chronicle of Higher Education |volume=49 |issue=35 |pages=B15 |year=2003 |month=May |pmid=15287125}}</ref>
The use of the term "race" to mean something like "[[subspecies]]" among humans is obsolete; ''Homo sapiens'' has no existing subspecies. In its modern scientific connotation, the term is not applicable to a species as genetically homogeneous as the human one, as stated in the declaration on race (UNESCO 1950, re-ratified 1978<ref name="1978UNESCO">[http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13161&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html "Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice"], [[UNESCO]], 1978. ([http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001140/114032e.pdf#page=60 PDF:])</ref>).<ref name=UNESCO>{{cite web|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001282/128291eo.pdf |title=The Race question; UNESCO and its programme; Vol.:3; 1950 - Publication 791 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-12-10}}</ref> Genetic studies have substantiated the absence of clear biological borders; thus the term "race" is rarely used in scientific terminology, either in biological anthropology and in human genetics.<ref name=Vogel1997>{{cite book |author=Vogel, Friedrich; Motulsky, Arno G. |title=Human Genetics: Problems and Approaches |edition=3rd |year=1997 |publisher=Springer |location=Heidelberg, Germany |isbn=978-3-540-60290-3 |pages=610–611 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Rbq0j5ZjhGgC&pg=PA610}}</ref> What in the past had been defined as "races"—whites, blacks, or Asians—are now defined as "ethnic groups" or "populations", in correlation with the field (sociology, anthropology, genetics) in which they are considered.<ref name=AAA>{{cite web |url=http://www.aaanet.org/gvt/ombdraft.htm |title=American Anthropological Association Response to OMB Directive 15: Race and Ethnic Standards for Federal Statistics and Administrative Reporting |publisher=American Anthropological Association |date=Sept 1997 |accessdate=2012-02-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Keita | first1 = SOY | last2 = Kittles | first2 = RA | last3 = Royal | first3 = CDM | last4 = Bonney | first4 = GM | last5 =Furbert-Harris | first5= P | last6 = Dunston | first6 = GM | last7 =Rotimi | first7 = CM |year = 2004 | title = Conceptualizing human variation | url =http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v36/n11s/full/ng1455.html | journal = Nature Genetics | volume = 36 | issue =S17–S20 | pmid=15507998 |doi=10.1038/ng1455 |ref=harv}}</ref>
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== Психология ==
{{Main|Психология}}
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The [[human brain]], the focal point of the [[central nervous system]] in humans, controls the [[peripheral nervous system]]. In addition to controlling "lower", involuntary, or primarily [[autonomic nervous system|autonomic]] activities such as [[respiration (physiology)|respiration]] and [[digestion]], it is also the locus of "higher" order functioning such as [[thought]], [[reason]]ing, and [[abstraction]].<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/3d/index.html 3-D Brain Anatomy], ''The Secret Life of the Brain'', Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved April 3, 2005.</ref> These [[mental function|cognitive processes]] constitute the [[mind]], and, along with their [[behavior]]al consequences, are studied in the field of [[psychology]].
Generally regarded as more capable of these higher order activities, the human brain is believed to be more "intelligent" in general than that of any other known species. While some non-human species are capable of creating structures and [[Tool use by animals|using simple tools]]—mostly through instinct and mimicry—human technology is vastly more complex, and is constantly evolving and improving through time.
Although humans are vastly more advanced than many species in cognitive abilities, most of these abilities are known in primitive form among other species. Modern anthropology has tended to bear out [[Charles Darwin|Darwin's]] proposition that "the difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great as it is, certainly is one of degree and not of kind".<ref name="AnthropologyTodayApr07">{{cite journal |author=Benthall, Jonathan |title=Animal liberation and rights |journal=Anthropology Today |pages=1–3 |year=2007 |volume=23 |issue=2 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8322.2007.00494.x}}</ref>
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===Consciousness and thought===
{{Main|Consciousness|Cognition}}
Humans are one of only several species known to pass the [[mirror test]].<ref name=Leary2005>{{cite book |author=Leary, Mark R.; Tangney, June Price |title=Handbook of Self and Identity |year=2005 |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York, New York |isbn=978-1-59385-237-5 |pages=576–577 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vafgWfgxUK8C&pg=PA577}}</ref> Most human children will pass the mirror test at 18 months old.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ulm.edu/~palmer/ConsciousnessandtheSymbolicUniverse.htm |title=Consciousness and the Symbolic Universe |author=Dr. Jack Palmer |accessdate=March 17, 2006}}</ref> However, the usefulness of this test as a true test of consciousness has been disputed, and this may be a matter of degree rather than a sharp divide. Monkeys have been trained to apply abstract rules in tasks.<ref>[http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/abstract-0718.html Researchers home in on how brain handles abstract thought] – retrieved July 29, 2006</ref>
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The human brain perceives the external world through the [[sense]]s, and each individual human is influenced greatly by his or her experiences, leading to [[subjectivity|subjective]] views of [[existence]] and the passage of time. Humans are variously said to possess [[consciousness]], [[self-awareness]], and a mind, which correspond roughly to the mental processes of [[thought]]. These are said to possess qualities such as self-awareness, [[sentience]], [[sapience]], and the ability to perceive the relationship between [[Personal identity (philosophy)|oneself]] and one's [[natural environment|environment]]. The extent to which the mind constructs or experiences the outer world is a matter of debate, as are the definitions and validity of many of the terms used above. The philosopher of [[cognitive science]] [[Daniel Dennett]], for example, argues that there is no such thing as a narrative center called the "mind", but that instead there is simply a collection of sensory inputs and outputs: different kinds of "software" running in parallel.<ref name=Dennett1991>{{cite book |author=Dennett, Daniel |title=[[Consciousness Explained]] |year=1991 |publisher=Little Brown |location=Boston, Massachusetts |isbn=0-316-18065-3}}</ref> Psychologist [[B.F. Skinner]] argued that the mind is an explanatory fiction that diverts attention from environmental causes of behavior,<ref>Skinner, B.F. About Behaviorism 1974, page 74–75</ref> and that what are commonly seen as mental processes may be better conceived of as forms of covert verbal behavior.<ref>Skinner, B.F. ''About Behaviorism'', Chapter 7: Thinking</ref><ref>A thesis against which [[Noam Chomsky#Contributions to psychology|Noam Chomsky]] advanced a considerable polemic.</ref>
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Humans study the more physical aspects of the mind and brain, and by extension of the nervous system, in the field of [[neurology]], the more behavioral in the field of psychology, and a sometimes loosely defined area between in the field of psychiatry, which treats mental illness and behavioral disorders. Psychology does not necessarily refer to the brain or nervous system, and can be framed purely in terms of [[Phenomenology (psychology)|phenomenological]] or [[information processing]] theories of the mind. Increasingly, however, an understanding of brain functions is being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as [[artificial intelligence]], [[neuropsychology]], and [[cognitive neuroscience]].
The nature of thought is central to psychology and related fields. [[Cognitive psychology]] studies [[cognition]], the [[mental function|mental processes']] underlying behavior. It uses [[information processing]] as a framework for understanding the mind. Perception, learning, problem solving, memory, attention, language and emotion are all well researched areas as well. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as [[cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivism]], whose adherents argue for an [[information processing]] model of mental function, informed by [[positivism]] and [[experimental psychology]]. Techniques and models from cognitive psychology are widely applied and form the mainstay of psychological theories in many areas of both research and applied psychology. Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, [[developmental psychology]] seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or [[moral development]].
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Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is experience itself, and access consciousness, which is the processing of the things in experience.<ref name="Bl">Ned Block: ''On a Confusion about a Function of Consciousness'' in: ''The Behavioral and Brain Sciences'', 1995.</ref> Phenomenal consciousness is the state of being conscious, such as when they say "I am conscious." Access consciousness is being conscious ''of'' something in relation to abstract concepts, such as when one says "I am conscious of these words." Various forms of access consciousness include awareness, self-awareness, conscience, [[Stream of consciousness (psychology)|stream of consciousness]], [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|Husserl's phenomenology]], and [[intentionality]]. The concept of phenomenal consciousness, in modern history, according to some, is closely related to the concept of [[qualia]]. [[Social psychology]] links sociology with psychology in their shared study of the nature and causes of human social interaction, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. The behavior and mental processes, both human and non-human, can be described through [[animal cognition]], [[ethology]], [[evolutionary psychology]], and [[comparative psychology]] as well. [[Human ecology]] is an [[List of academic disciplines|academic discipline]] that investigates how humans and human [[society|societies]] interact with both their natural environment and the human [[social environment]].
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=== Мотивация һәм эмоция ===
{{Main|Мотивация|Эмоция}}
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[[Motivation]] is the driving force of desire behind all deliberate [[Action (philosophy)|actions]] of humans. Motivation is based on emotion—specifically, on the search for [[Contentment|satisfaction]] (positive emotional experiences), and the avoidance of conflict. Positive and negative is defined by the individual brain state, which may be influenced by [[social norm]]s: a person may be driven to [[self-injury]] or [[violence]] because his [[Human brain|brain]] is conditioned to create a positive response to these actions. Motivation is important because it is involved in the performance of all learned responses. Within [[psychology]], [[conflict avoidance]] and the [[libido]] are seen to be primary motivators. Within [[economics]], motivation is often seen to be based on [[incentive]]s; these may be [[financial]], [[moral]], or [[coercive]]. [[Religion]]s generally posit divine or [[demon]]ic influences.
[[Happiness]], or the state of being happy, is a human emotional condition. The definition of happiness is a common [[philosophy|philosophical]] topic. Some people might define it as the best condition that a human can have—a condition of [[mental health|mental]] and physical [[health]]. Others define it as [[wikt:freedom|freedom]] from want and distress; consciousness of the [[goodness and value theory|good]] order of things; assurance of one's place in the [[universe]] or [[society]].
Emotion has a significant influence on, or can even be said to control, human behavior, though historically many [[culture]]s and [[philosopher]]s have for various reasons discouraged allowing this influence to go unchecked. Emotional experiences perceived as pleasant, such as [[love]], admiration, or joy, contrast with those perceived as unpleasant, like [[hate]], [[envy]], or [[sorrow (emotion)|sorrow]]. There is often a distinction made between refined emotions that are socially learned and [[wiktionary:survival|survival]] oriented emotions, which are thought to be innate. Human exploration of emotions as separate from other neurological phenomena is worthy of note, particularly in cultures where emotion is considered separate from physiological state. In some cultural medical theories emotion is considered so synonymous with certain forms of physical health that no difference is thought to exist. The [[Stoicism|Stoics]] believed excessive emotion was harmful, while some [[Sufi]] teachers felt certain extreme emotions could yield a conceptual perfection, what is often translated as [[ecstasy (emotion)|ecstasy]].
In modern scientific thought, certain refined emotions are considered a complex neural trait innate in a variety of [[domesticated animal|domesticated]] and non-domesticated [[mammal]]s. These were commonly developed in reaction to superior survival mechanisms and intelligent interaction with each other and the environment; as such, refined emotion is not in all cases as discrete and separate from natural neural function as was once assumed. However, when humans function in civilized tandem, it has been noted that uninhibited acting on extreme emotion can lead to social disorder and [[crime]].
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== Җәмгыять һәм мәдәният ==
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{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" style="width:308px; float:right; border:1px solid gray; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:90%; margin:0 0 .5em 1em;"
! colspan="2" style="background:Lightgrey; text-align:center;"| Human society statistics
|-
|[[World population]]
| {{#expr: {{worldpop}} / 1e9 round 1}} billion
|-
|[[Population density#Human population density|Population density]]{{citation needed|date=February 2012}}
|12.7 per km² (4.9 mi²) by total area<br />43.6 per km² (16.8 mi²) by land area
|-
| valign="top" | [[World's largest cities|Largest agglomerations]]{{citation needed|date=February 2012}}
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Beijing]], [[Bogotá]], [[Buenos Aires]], [[Cairo]], [[Delhi]], [[Dhaka]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Istanbul]], [[Jakarta]], [[Karachi]], [[Kinshasa]], [[Kolkata]], [[Lagos]], [[Lima]], [[London]], [[Los Angeles]], [[Manila]], [[Mexico City]], [[Moscow]], [[Mumbai]], [[New York City]], [[Osaka]], [[Paris]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[São Paulo]], [[Seoul]], [[Shanghai]], [[Shenzhen]], [[Tehran]], [[Tianjin]], [[Tokyo]], [[Wuhan]]
|-
| valign="top" | Most widely spoken languages<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/ethno_docs/distribution.asp?by=size |title=Statistical Summaries |publisher=Ethnologue |date= |accessdate=2011-12-10}}</ref>
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Mandarin Chinese]], [[English language|English]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Arabic]], [[Hindi]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[German language|German]], [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[French language|French]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Urdu]], [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]
|-
| circulating|Most popular [[religion]]s<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=CIA - The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |date= |accessdate=2011-12-10}}</ref>
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Sikhism]], [[Judaism]], [[Baha'i]]
|-
|[[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ([[Real versus nominal value|nominal]]){{citation needed|date=February 2012}}
|$36,356,240 million [[US dollar|USD]]<br> ($5,797 USD [[per capita]])
|-
|GDP ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]){{citation needed|date=February 2012}}
|$51,656,251 million [[International dollar|IND]]<br> ($8,236 per capita)
|}
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{{main|Мәдәният|Җәмгыять}}
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Humans are social beings. In comparisons with animalia, humans are regarded like the [[primates]] for their social qualities. But beyond any other creature, humans are adept at utilizing systems of [[communication]] for self-expression, the exchange of ideas, and [[social organization|organization]], and as such have created complex [[social structures]] composed of many cooperating and competing groups. Human groups range from families to [[nations]]. Social interactions between humans have established an extremely wide variety of values, social norms, and rituals, which together form the basis of human [[society]].
[[Culture]] is defined here as patterns of complex symbolic behavior, i.e. all behavior that is not innate but which has to be learned through social interaction with others; such as the use of distinctive [[material culture|material]] and [[symbolic system]]s, including language, ritual, social organization, traditions, beliefs and technology.
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=== Этник төрлелеге ===
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Ethnic groups are defined by linguistic, cultural, ancestral, national or regional ties. Identification with an ethnic group is usually based on [[kinship and descent]]. Race and ethnicity are among major factors in [[social identity]] giving rise to various forms of [[identity politics]], for example [[racism]].
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=== Сексуальлек һәм сөю ===
{{Main|Сөю|Кеше сексуальлеге}}
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[[Human sexuality]], besides ensuring biological [[reproduction]], has important social functions: it creates physical intimacy, bonds, and hierarchies among individuals; and in a [[hedonism|hedonistic]] sense to the enjoyment of activity involving sexual gratification. Sexual desire, or [[libido]], is experienced as a bodily urge, often accompanied by strong emotions such as love, [[ecstasy (emotion)|ecstasy]], and jealousy. The extreme importance of sexuality in the human species can be seen in a number of physical features, among them hidden ovulation, the evolution of external scrotum and penis suggesting sperm competition, the absence of an [[Baculum|os penis]], permanent [[secondary sexual characteristics]], the forming of pair bonds based on sexual attraction as a common social structure and sexual ability in females outside of ovulation–human females do not have a distinct or visible [[estrus]]. These adaptations indicate that the importance of sexuality in humans is on a par with that found in the [[Bonobo]], and that the complex human sexual behavior has a long [[evolution]]ary history.<ref name=Haviland2010>{{cite book |author=Haviland, Wiliam A.; Prins, Harald E.L.; McBride, Bunny; Walrath, Dana |title=Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge |year=2010 |publisher=Wadsworth/Cengage Learning |location=Belmont, California |page=82 |isbn=978-0-495-81082-7 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yP6TrXRpPdMC&pg=PA82}}</ref><!--cites last sentence-->
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Human choices in acting on sexuality are commonly influenced by cultural norms, which vary widely. Restrictions are often determined by religious beliefs or social customs. The pioneering researcher [[Sigmund Freud]] believed that humans are born [[Psychosexual development|polymorphously perverse]], which means that any number of objects could be a source of pleasure. According to Freud, humans then pass through five stages of [[psychosexual development]] (and can fixate on any stage because of various traumas during the process). For [[Alfred Kinsey]], another influential sex researcher, people can fall anywhere along a continuous scale of sexual orientation (with only small minorities fully [[heterosexual]] or [[homosexual]]). Recent studies of neurology and genetics suggest people may be born predisposed to various sexual tendencies.<ref name=Buss2003>{{cite book |author=Buss, David M. |year=2003 |title=The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating. Revised Edition |location=New York, New York |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-00802-5}}</ref><ref name=Thornhill2000>{{cite book |author=Thornhill, Randy; Palmer, Craig T. |year=2000 |title=A Natural History of Rape. Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-262-70083-2}}</ref><!--find page #'s or range for these-->
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=== Гендер ролләре ===
{{Main|Гендер роле}}
{{Seealso|Гендер}}
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The sexual division of humans into male and female has been marked culturally by a corresponding division of roles, norms, [[practice (social theory)|practices]], dress, behavior, [[rights]], [[duty|duties]], [[privilege]]s, [[social status|status]], and [[power (philosophy)|power]]. [[Cultural identity|Cultural differences]] by gender have often been believed to have arisen naturally out of a division of reproductive labor; the biological fact that women give birth led to their further cultural responsibility for nurturing and caring for children. [[Gender role]]s have varied historically, and challenges to predominant gender norms have recurred in many societies.
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=== Җәмгыять, хөкүмәт һәм сәясәт ===
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[[File:United Nations HQ - New York City.jpg|thumb|right|The [[United Nations]] complex in [[New York City]], which houses one of the largest political organizations in the world]]
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{{Main|Җәмгыять|Хөкүмәт|Сәясәт|Дәүләт}}
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[[Society]] is the system of organizations and institutions arising from interaction between humans. A [[State (polity)|state]] is an organized [[politics|political]] community occupying a definite territory, having an organized [[government]], and possessing internal and external [[sovereignty]]. Recognition of the state's claim to independence by other states, enabling it to enter into international agreements, is often important to the establishment of its statehood. The "state" can also be defined in terms of domestic conditions, specifically, as conceptualized by [[Max Weber]], "a state is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the 'legitimate' use of physical force within a given territory."<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20020612070242/http://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/study/xWeb.htm Max Weber's definition of the modern state 1918], by [[Max Weber]], 1918. Retrieved March 17, 2006.</ref>
[[Government]] can be defined as the [[politics|political]] means of creating and enforcing [[law]]s; typically via a [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]] [[hierarchy]]. [[Politics]] is the process by which decisions are made within groups; this process often involves conflict as well as compromise. Although the term is generally applied to behavior within [[government]]s, politics is also observed in all human group interactions, including corporate, academic, and religious institutions. Many different political systems exist, as do many different ways of understanding them, and many definitions overlap. Examples of governments include [[monarchy]], [[Communist state]], [[military dictatorship]], [[theocracy]], and [[liberal democracy]], the last of which is considered dominant today. All of these issues have a direct relationship with economics.
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=== Сәүдә һәм икътисад ===
{{Main|Сәүдә|Икътисад}}
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[[File:Tengeru market.jpg|thumb|right|[[Buyer]]s and [[seller]]s [[bargaining]] in a market]]
Trade is the voluntary exchange of goods and services, and is a form of [[economics]]. A mechanism that allows trade is called a [[market]]. The original form of trade was [[barter (economics)|barter]], the direct exchange of goods and services. Modern traders instead generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money. As a result, buying can be separated from selling, or [[earnings|earning]]. The invention of money (and later [[Credit (finance)|credit]], paper money and non-physical money) greatly simplified and promoted trade. Because of specialization and [[division of labor]], most people concentrate on a small aspect of manufacturing or service, trading their labor for products. Trade exists between regions because different regions have an [[Absolute advantage|absolute]] or [[comparative advantage]] in the production of some tradable commodity, or because different regions' size allows for the benefits of [[mass production]].
Economics is a [[social science]] which studies the production, distribution, trade, and consumption of goods and services. Economics focuses on measurable variables, and is broadly divided into two main branches: [[microeconomics]], which deals with individual agents, such as households and businesses, and macroeconomics, which considers the economy as a whole, in which case it considers [[aggregate supply]] and [[aggregate demand|demand]] for money, [[capital (economics)|capital]] and [[commodity|commodities]]. Aspects receiving particular attention in economics are [[resource allocation]], production, distribution, trade, and [[competition]]. Economic logic is increasingly applied to any problem that involves choice under scarcity or determining economic [[Value (economics)|value]].
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=== Сугыш ===
{{Main|Сугыш}}
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War is a state of widespread conflict between states or other large groups of humans, which is characterized by the use of lethal [[violence]] between combatants and/or upon [[civilians]]. (Humans also engage in lesser conflicts, such as brawls, [[riots]], [[revolts]], and [[melees]]. A [[revolution]] may or may not involve warfare.) It is estimated that during the 20th century between 167 and 188 million humans died as a result of war.<ref>Ferguson, Niall. "The Next War of the World." Foreign Affairs, Sep/Oct 2006</ref> A common perception of war is a series of [[military campaign]]s between at least two opposing sides involving a dispute over [[sovereignty]], territory, [[natural resource|resources]], [[religion]], or other issues. A war between internal elements of a state is a [[civil war]].
There have been a wide variety of [[Revolution in Military Affairs|rapidly advancing]] [[military tactics|tactics]] throughout the history of war, ranging from [[conventional war]] to [[asymmetric warfare]] to [[total war]] and [[unconventional warfare]]. Techniques include [[hand to hand combat]], the use of [[ranged weapons]], [[Naval warfare]], and, more recently, [[air support]]. Military intelligence has often played a key role in determining victory and defeat. Propaganda, which often includes information, slanted opinion and disinformation, plays a key role in maintaining unity within a warring group, and/or sowing discord among opponents. In modern warfare, [[soldiers]] and [[combat vehicle]]s are used to control the land, [[warships]] the sea, and [[aircraft]] the sky. These fields have also overlapped in the forms of marines, paratroopers, naval aircraft carriers, and surface-to-air missiles, among others. [[Satellites]] in [[low Earth orbit]] have made outer space a factor in warfare as well as it is used for detailed intelligence gathering, however no known aggressive actions have been taken from [[space warfare|space]].
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=== Матди мәдәният һәм технология ===
{{Main|Корал|Технология}}
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[[File:Bifaz abbevillense.png|thumb|right| An archaic [[Acheulean]] stone tool]]
Stone tools were used by proto-humans at least 2.5 million years ago.<ref name=Clark1994>{{cite journal |author=Clark, J.D.; de Heinzelin, J.; Schick, K.D.; ''et al''. |title=African ''Homo erectus'': old radiometric ages and young Oldowan assemblages in the Middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia |journal=Science |year=1994 |volume=264 |issue=5167 |pages=1907–1910 |pmid=8009220 |doi=10.1126/science.8009220}}</ref> The [[Control of fire by early humans|controlled use of fire]] began around 1.5 million years ago. Since then, humans have made major advances, developing complex technology to create tools to aid their lives and allowing for other advancements in culture. Major leaps in technology include the discovery of [[agriculture]] – what is known as the [[Neolithic Revolution]], and the invention of automated machines in the [[Industrial Revolution]].
[[Archaeology]] attempts to tell the story of past or lost cultures in part by close examination of the [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] they produced. Early humans left [[stone tools]], [[pottery]], and [[jewelry]] that are particular to various regions and times.
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=== Кием, бизәкләр, чәч кисү һәм тән үзенчәлекләрен үзгәртү ===
{{main|Кием|Тән үзенчәлекләрен үзгәртү|Чәч кисү}}
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Throughout their history humans have altered their appearance by wearing clothing <ref>Balter M. (2009). Clothes Make the (Hu) Man. Science,325(5946):1329.{{DOI|10.1126/science.325_1329a}} PMID 19745126</ref><ref>Kvavadze E, Bar-Yosef O, Belfer-Cohen A, Boaretto E,Jakeli N, Matskevich Z, Meshveliani T. (2009).30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers. Science, 325(5946):1359. {{DOI|10.1126/science.1175404}} PMID 19745144 [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/data/325/5946/1359/DC1/1 Supporting Online Material]</ref> and [[adornment]]s, by trimming or [[shaving]] hair or by means of body modifications.
[[Body modification]] is the deliberate altering of the [[human anatomy|human body]] for any non-medical reason, such as aesthetics, sexual enhancement, a rite of passage, religious reasons, to display group membership or affiliation, to create [[body art]], shock value, or self expression.<ref name="DeMello2007"/> In its most broad definition it includes [[plastic surgery]], socially acceptable decoration (''e.g.'', common [[earring|ear piercing]] in many societies), and religious rites of passage (e.g., [[circumcision]] in a number of cultures).<ref name="DeMello2007">{{cite book|author=Margo DeMello|title=Encyclopedia of Body Adornment|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=s0122BsqrZwC&pg=PR17|accessdate=6 April 2012|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-33695-9|pages=17–}}</ref>
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=== Тел ===
{{Main|Тел}}
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The capacity humans have to transfer [[concept]]s, [[idea]]s and [[notion (philosophy)|notions]] through speech (and recently, writing) is unrivaled in known species. Unlike the closed call systems of other primates in which sounds are unique and mutually exclusive, human language is open—an infinite number of meanings can be produced by combining a limited number of sounds and words. Human language has the quality of [[Displacement (linguistics)|displacement]], using words to represent things and happenings that are not presently or locally occurring, but elsewhere or at a different time.<ref name="Revolution"/> Basic displacement may occur in other species, but is relatively elaborated in humans, allowing symbols and language to refer to abstract or even purely imaginary states, and underpinning the complex symbolic culture of the species. The faculty of speech is a defining feature of humanity, possibly predating [[phylogenetic]] separation of the modern population. Language is central to the communication between humans, and to the sense of identity that unites nations, cultures and ethnic groups. The invention of writing systems at least five thousand years ago allowed the preservation of language on material objects, and was a major step in [[Sociocultural evolution|cultural evolution]]. The science of [[linguistics]] describes the structure of language and the relationship between languages. There are approximately six thousand different languages currently in use, including [[sign language]]s, and many thousands more that are considered [[extinct language|extinct]].<ref name=Comrie1996>{{cite book |author=Comrie, Bernard; Polinsky, Maria; Matthews, Stephen |title=The Atlas of Languages: The Origin and Development of Languages Throughout the World |year=1996 |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York, New York |pages=13–15 |isbn=978-0-8160-3388-1}}</ref><!--cites previous sentence-->
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=== Дин һәм рухият ===
{{Main|Дин|Рухият}}
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[[File:The Creation of Adam.jpg|thumb|Religion and spirituality are important aspects of human cultures.]]
[[File:Nsibidi.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Nsibidi]] script from [[Nigeria]]. A means of communication among the initiates of the [[Ekpe]] [[secret society]].<ref>Diringer, David, "The alphabet: a key to the history of mankind", Volume 1, p 107, Funk & Wagnalls, 1968.</ref>]]
[[Religion]] is generally defined as a [[belief]] system concerning the [[supernatural]], [[sacred]] or [[divinity|divine]], and practices, [[values]], institutions and [[ritual]]s associated with such belief. Some religions also have a [[moral code]]. The [[Evolutionary psychology of religion|evolution]] and the history of the [[Evolutionary origin of religions|first religions]] have recently become areas of active scientific investigation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://evolution.binghamton.edu/religion/|title=Evolutionary Religious Studies: A New Field of Scientific Inquiry}}</ref><ref name=Boyer2008>{{cite journal |author=Boyer, Pascal |title=Being human: Religion: bound to believe? |journal=Nature |volume=455 |issue=7216 |pages=1038–1039 |year=2008 |pmid=18948934 |doi=10.1038/4551038a}}</ref><ref name=Emmons2003>{{Cite journal |author=Emmons, Robert A.; Paloutzian, Raymond F. |title=The psychology of religion |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |year=2003 |pmid=12171998 |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages= 377–402 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145024}}</ref> However, in the course of its [[development of religion|development]], religion has taken on many forms that vary by culture and individual perspective. Some of the chief questions and issues religions are concerned with include life after death (commonly involving belief in an [[afterlife]]), the [[origin of life]], the nature of the [[universe]] ([[religious cosmology]]) and its [[ultimate fate of the universe|ultimate fate]] ([[eschatology]]), and what is [[morality|moral]] or immoral. A common source for answers to these questions are beliefs in [[transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] [[divinity|divine]] beings such as [[deity|deities]] or a singular [[God]], although not all religions are [[theism|theistic]]. Spirituality, belief or involvement in matters of the [[soul]] or [[spirit]], is one of the many different approaches humans take in trying to answer fundamental questions about humankind's place in the universe, the [[meaning of life]], and the ideal way to live one's life. Though these topics have also been addressed by philosophy, and to some extent by science, spirituality is unique in that it focuses on [[mystical]] or supernatural concepts such as [[karma]] and God.
Although the exact level of religiosity can be hard to measure,<ref name=Hall2008>{{cite journal |author=Hall, Daniel E.; Meador, Keith G.; Koenig, Harold G. |title=Measuring religiousness in health research: review and critique |journal=Journal of Religion and Health |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=134–163 |year=2008 |pmid=19105008 |doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9165-2}}</ref> a majority of humans professes some variety of religious or spiritual belief, although some are [[irreligion|irreligious]]. Other humans have no religious beliefs or are [[atheism|atheists]], [[scientific skeptics]], [[agnostics]] or simply [[non-religious]]. [[Humanism]] is a philosophy which seeks to include all of humanity and all issues common to humans; it is usually non-religious. Additionally, although most religions and spiritual beliefs are clearly distinct from science on both a philosophical and methodological level, the two are not generally considered mutually exclusive; a majority of humans hold a mix of both scientific and religious views. The distinction between philosophy and religion, on the other hand, is at times less clear, and the two are linked in such fields as the [[philosophy of religion]] and [[theology]].
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=== Фәлсәфә һәм үз-үзен аңлау ===
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{{Main|Philosophy|Human self-reflection}}
{{See also|Human nature}}
[[File:Confuciusstatue.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of [[Confucius]] on [[Chongming Island]] in [[Shanghai]]]]
[[Philosophy]] is a discipline or field of study involving the investigation, analysis, and development of ideas at a general, abstract, or fundamental level. It is the discipline searching for a general understanding of reality, reasoning and values. Major fields of philosophy include [[logic]], [[metaphysics]], [[epistemology]], [[philosophy of mind]], and [[axiology]] (which includes [[ethics]] and [[aesthetics]]). Philosophy covers a very wide range of approaches, and is used to refer to a [[worldview]], to a perspective on an issue, or to the positions argued for by a particular philosopher or school of philosophy.
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=== Фән һәм математика ===
{{Main|Фән|Математика}}
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Scientific approach and mathematics have been unique to humans.
Mathematics is connected to language, and it is argued that this special genetic trait of humans, linked to language and abstract thought is responsible for the mathematical ability.
Closely related is humans' ability to model the world and use science. Although [[scientific revolution]] is relatively recent, humans have attempted to explain their environment since the ancient times.-->
=== Сәнгать, музыка һәм әдәбият ===
{{Main|Сәнгать|Музыка|Әдәбият}}
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[[File:Lorenzo Lippi 001.jpg|thumb|upright|left|''Allegory of Music'' (ca. 1594), a [[painting]] of a woman writing [[sheet music]] by [[Lorenzo Lippi]]]] Art is one of the most unusual aspects of human behavior and a [[cultural universal]], and humans have been producing artistic works at least since the days of [[Cro Magnon]]. As a form of [[culture|cultural]] expression by humans, art may be defined by the pursuit of [[Multiculturalism|diversity]] and the usage of [[narrative]]s of liberation and exploration (i.e. [[art history]], [[art criticism]], and [[art theory]]) to mediate its boundaries. This distinction may be applied to objects or performances, current or historical, and its prestige extends to those who made, found, exhibit, or own them. In the modern use of the word, art is commonly understood to be the process or result of making material works that, from concept to creation, adhere to the "creative impulse" of human beings. Art is distinguished from other works by being in large part unprompted by necessity, by biological drive, or by any undisciplined pursuit of recreation.
Music is a natural [[Intuition (knowledge)|intuitive]] phenomenon based on the three distinct and interrelated organization structures of rhythm, harmony, and melody. Listening to music is perhaps the most common and universal form of [[entertainment]] for humans, while learning and understanding it are popular [[discipline]]s. There are a wide variety of [[music genre]]s and [[ethnic music]]s. [[Literature]], the body of written—and possibly oral—works, especially creative ones, includes prose, poetry and drama, both fiction and [[non-fiction]]. Literature includes such genres as [[epic poetry|epic]], legend, myth, ballad, and folklore.
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== Шулай ук карагыз ==
{{Портал|Зоология|Биология|Җәмгыять|Тарих|Социология}}
== Искәрмәләр ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
== Өстәмә әдәбият ==
* Freeman, Scott; Jon C. Herron, ''Evolutionary Analysis'' (4th ed.) Pearson Education, Inc., 2007. ISBN 0-13-227584-8 pages 757–761.
== Чыганаклар ==
== Чыганак ==
[[:en:Human]]
== Сылтамалар ==
* [http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=070824121653.65mgd37f Chororapithecus abyssinicus] Possible human-orangutan split 20 million years ago. (Aug 26 2007)
*[http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-sapiens Homo sapiens] – The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program
* {{eol|327955|Homo sapiens Linnaeus, 1758}}
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